DIDACTICS II

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Universidad Tecnológica Nacional

Instituto Nacional Superior del Profesorado Técnico

Cátedra de Didáctica Especial del Primer y Segundo Ciclo de la EGB y Práctica de la Enseñanza –Segundo Año

 

Lecturers  : Omar Villarreal & Andrea Coviella,

 

Practicum Supervisors :  Marina Kirac, Claudia Alvarez, Marcela Russo, Marisa Caccia, Analía Figliola, Gabriela Junco, Patricia Suárez Rotger and Florencia Raña.

 

Assistant Teachers: Romina Hirniak and Maria Laura Groppo.

 

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"The most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life: the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure"

 

Dear All,

 

You must all be working very hard for your first parcial.

This will be a short posting with material I know you will appreciate. Summaries!!

They were written by your own classmates. One of them contains the answers to the questionnaire you can find in www.shareeducation.com.ar in the section Didactics II . The other is more comprehensive and contains material on the whole of Ficha de Cátedra 1.

 

I am very happy to see this kind of networking starting to take shape. Keep on sharing and… reading!

 

All the best in your test and a big hug

 

Omar

 

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1-          Summary of Penny Ur_ Ficha de catedra 1_ based on questions from www.shareeducation.com.ar   prepared by Mariana Farias

 

Ur, Penny. 1996. A Course in Language Teaching : Practice and Theory.

Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

 

Module 7

 

-Why is the presentation of language through a situation or topic more interesting or advantageous?

 

     Because the learner is immediately engaging with language that expresses meanings in context, and these may be seen as more interesting and clearly relevant for communicative purposes. (Page 90)

 

-What do notions and functions represent in a language?

     They represent the ways particular meanings are realized in a language, the basic units underlying a communicative system more realistically than the categories of lexis and grammar which may be taught detached from particular communicative contexts.

     A notion is a concept or idea: it may be "specific" (in which case overlaps with the concept of topic: emotion, size).

     A function is some kind of communicative act: it is the use of language to achieve a purpose, usually involving interaction at least between two people.  (Page 92)

 

-Relate notions and functions with the two axes along which contents are organized.(Language as a means of communication and language as a way of categorization of the world)

   

English as system of categorization of the world:  It is related to the speaker's own perception of the world, he uses different lexical items for different perceptions of the world; it also has to do with conceptual systems, syntactical and lexical structures.

 

English as a means of communication:  It has to do with the development of communicative skills - reading, listening, writing and speaking ( the four macro skills).  And with communicative competence as well. ( "Whole" Language)

   

(Page 93)  In principle, the idea uniting topics, situations, notions and functions is a "holistic" view of how bits of language should be presented to learners.  Such a view emphasizes the importance of dealing with whole, meaningful chunks of language in context, rather than decontextualised items such as lists of vocabulary, or isolated examples of grammatical structures.

 

-Think of a concrete example in which memorized chunks contribute to the better development of a task.

 

     Memorized chunks contribute when you are dealing with role plays: students will make use of the expressions they have already learnt in the new communicative situation (if necessary).

  (See Box 7.3 and the task as well)

 

     (Page 93) (Memorized chunks of language or formulaic utterances associated with particular communicative contexts furnish the learner with a rich and reliable 'vocabulary' of ready-made expressions which contribute significantly to his or her overall mastery of the language.  Thus if we present our learners with samples of functions incorporated into situational dialogues, it makes sense to ask them to learn some of these by heart: provided, of course, that we consistently maintain their awareness of the meaning and purpose of what they are saying).

 

-What are the advantages of starting a class from a learner initiated text over a ready made text given by the teacher?

 

     The minds of teacher and students are from the outset firmly focused on the 'holistic' language topic, whereas the use of a text as starting point can lead to neglect of meaning and purpose in favour of analysis of grammar and vocabulary items.

     There is an 'authentic' flavour of the language-learning process.  This is how people learn languages when they are plunged into a foreign society, learning as they go along, coping with a certain unpredictability of the language content that will be needed and learned.

 

Module 12

 

-Can we learn about the approach or methodology applied in a course by reading its syllabus? Why? Why not?

 

     Yes, because a syllabus is a document which consists of a list with all the things that are to be taught in the course.  It may list recommended materials -coursebook, visual materials or supplementary materials.

 

-What is your impression of the testimonies given on page 180?

     I think that Anna is very dependent on the syllabus and I wonder what will happen if she didn't have it prepared with anticipation.

     On the other hand, Joseph is at on opposed extreme to Anna.  He didn't use the syllabus at all and I do not think it is appropriate.

     In my opinion, we should have syllabus but we must be conscious when to use it and when to forget about it.

 

-Discuss the role of the teacher in the actual making of the syllabus.

 

     There may be a policy allowing teachers complete freedom in designing their teaching programme, since they prefer to do their own thing, based on the needs of their students.  They use materials and activities from different sources (teacher's handbooks, literature, etc.) in this way they vary the programme and adapt it to students needs during the course.  In this case the syllabus may be non-existent or ignored.  However, in most contexts the disadvantages outweigh the advantages because the abandonment of a carefully pre-planned syllabus may result in significant gaps in one language content taught.  Also, the lack of clear structure may make it difficult for either teacher or learners and feel a sense of progress or evaluate learning outcomes.

 

Module 15

 

-Try to find a metaphor in which there is interaction in a role based culture.

      

"Consultation with a doctor" implies a certain relationship between teacher and learner that parallels that between doctor and patient.  Where the teacher role involves responsibility and activity, the learner involves responsiveness and receptivity.  All participants know and accept in advance the demands that will be made on them, and their expected behaviour.

 

-What is the purpose of finding a suitable balance in the activities proposed for a class?

 

     The purpose is that it is with deferring some principles of selection and organization of components to construct a smooth, coherent programme.  Otherwise, varied activities flung together in a random order can result in a feeling of restlessness and disorder.

     That is why first we should put the harder tasks since students are fresher and more energetic earlier in the lesson.  Second, we should have quieter activities before lively ones since it is quite different to calm down a class who have been participating in a lively activity.  Third, we should think about transitions since they make the more from one activity to the other smoother.  Fourth, we should put the class together at the beginning and at the end of the class.  At the beginning for general greetings and at the end to round off the class.  Fifth,  and the last one, we have to end on a positive note, like a summary of what we have achieved today. 

 

-What does the phrase "active learning is good learning" imply?

 

     It implies that learners may be activated in a way that encourages their own initiative: An active lesson, besides being more interesting and pleasant for both teacher and learners, is also likely to cater for a wider range of learning styles and strategies.  The most important point here is that if learners are active they are likely to be learning better that is why the material and task should be of appropriate level.

 

Module 16

 

-What is the desired effect of teacher questioning?

 

a) That the students immediately grasp what the question means and what kind of answer is required.

b) That the learners feel stimulated to think and respond.

c) That "learners find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating."

d) That "most members of the class try to answer it."

e) That the question encourages different answers.

f) That the teacher respect his/her students even if they say something inappropriate.

 

-Take a picture from a course book and think of a set of questions to introduce a lesson. Discuss them with your group.

(Pictures taken from: Chatterbox 3, Unit 3, Page 13)

 

a) Do you like sports?

b) What's your favourite sport?

c) How often do you play sports?

d) Which sports do you play in summer?

e) And in winter?

 

-What contribution does individualized learning make to a regular programme?

     Individualized learning implies "a serious attempt do provide for differing learner needs within a class and to place a higher proportion of responsibility for learning on the shoulders of the learners themselves.  Students can choose readers and read them quietly in class, they can respond to listening exercises, work on their own with workcards, answer questions in their textbooks, practise different exercises (provided in worksheets) and do a varied number of tasks different from their mates." 

     Individualized learning gives learner a measure of freedom to choose how and what they learn at any particular time.  Implying more learner autonomy and responsibility for learning.

 

Module 17

 

-What are the objectives of feedback apart from the correction of mistakes?

 

* "To improve the learner's performance of a learning task."

* To give an "informative  feedback" in order to guide students.

* To provide a response of your own (the teacher responds), e.g.: "I agree with this point..."

* To help and to promote learning; and that "getting it wrong" is not "bad", but rather a way of "getting it right."

 

-What is the difference between correction and assessment?

 

     In assessment the learners is simply informed how well or badly he or she has performed, e.g.: 'No', 'Fair'.

     In correction some specific information is provide on aspects of the learner's performance through explanation, or provision of better or other alternatives, or through elicit action of these from the learner.

     Correction can or should include information on what the learner did right, as well as wrong, and why!  (But generally it is understood, by teachers and students, as referring to the correction of mistakes.)

     It is possible to give assessment without correcting, but it is virtually impossible to comment on what is right or wrong without assessing.

 

-Define the kind of feedback that a grade after a term exam represents.

 

     Portfolio is the feedback in which the learner gathers a collection of assignments and projects done over a long period a file.  This portfolio provides the basis for evaluation.   (There are two kind of evaluation.  One is "Formative", since its purpose is to "form": to enhance a process.  The other one is "Summative", where the teacher evaluates an overall aspect of the learner's knowledge in order to summarize the situation.)

 

-Mention the most common ways to correct mistakes in oral production. Weigh their pros and cons.

 

     There are some situations where we might prefer not to correct a learner's mistake: in fluency work (where the learner is in mid-speech, so as not to disturb him/her.)

     Other situation, correcting may be helpful: when the message is not clearly expressed.

     Corrections may or may not include clarification of why the mistake was made and how to avoid it.

     We should go for encouraging, tactful correction.

     Oral correction can be provided by the teacher, can be elicited from the student (learner) who made the mistake or by another member of the class.

 

-What conditions should there be present for the learner to have an open attitude towards the feedback given?

 

     The teacher has to observe and ask students about the techniques they prefer because learner's preferences are on the whole a reliable guide.  The corrections have to be express gently, supportively or tactfully.

     In fact, learners responses to different expression of feedback are surprising: teacher sensitivity is needed in these cases.

     It is essential for such assessments to be given in an atmosphere of support and warm solidarity, so that learners feel that the teacher's motive is honestly to promote and encourage their learning.

 

Module 18

 

-A disciplined classroom activates students´ learning. Discuss.

 

     (Page 260)  In a discipline classroom it is easier to activate students in the way the teachers want, all the time can be spent on the tasks rather than wasted on discipline problems.  However, there are a lot of well-disciplined classes in which little or no learning takes place because the activities may have little learning value.  Thus, the existence of a discipline classroom does not, in itself, necessarily imply that learning is taking place.  Therefore, there is a link between discipline and learning but it is not a consistent or inevitable one.

 

-Which seem to be the key ingredients of a disciplined classroom where learning takes place?

(Page 261 and 262) 

 

* Quietness:  We may say that this characteristic is irrelevant because there are a lot of noisy classrooms in which group work is taking place.  However, noisy group work takes up only part of the lesson.  What is more important is that disciplined classes may or may not be quiet but undisciplined ones are always noisy.  There is, therefore, some positive correlation between quietness and the level of discipline.

* Control in the hands of the teacher:  This does not mean that the teacher will stand in front of the class and tell everyone what they have to do.  The classroom may have a democratic set up (the students may decide what to do in a certain activity) but the underlying responsibility for the control should be in the hands of the teacher.

* Smoothly cooperation:  Smooth-running process is the main manifestation of a discipline classroom and there hast to be cooperation of the participants in order to produce this.

* Motivation:  The correlation between discipline and motivation is not absolute but there is a probability that if the class is motivated to learn, it is more likely to be easy to manage.

* Planned lesson:  A lesson which is going according to a plan is more likely to be disciplined since the teacher knows where she is going and the awareness that the process is clearly planned tends to boost teacher confidence and students trust, which contribute to discipline.  On the other hand, changes and improvisation do not necessarily lead to indiscipline, and may 'even' prevent it.

* A shared knowledge of the objectives:  Students may be unaware of the objectives of a lesson, and yet be amenable to the control of the teacher, and the class as whole disciplined.  On the other hand, they may know the objectives of the lesson and wish to implement objectives of their own: the result will be a chaos.  A shared knowledge of the objectives may contribute to discipline by raising motivation and the likelihood of cooperation.

* Charismatic authority:  Some teachers possess it while other do not, and the possessors of this quality find it much easier to control classes.  However, the ones who do not posses it can also have a discipline classroom if they work harder.

 

-How can we, as teachers, foster self-discipline?

 

     (Page 264)  Although the immediate responsibility for the maintenance of classroom discipline in most situations is the teacher's, the ultimate goal is to reach the point where learners take on or at least share this responsibility.  Self-discipline has to do with the maturity of the learner, but can be fostered by the teacher.  The way to do this is not simply to try to hand over responsibility to the learners for running a lesson but first to get them to the used to the 'feel' of orderly classroom process, then gradually to begin to share decision-making based on this.

 

Practical hints for teachers on classroom discipline

 

a) Start by being firm with students: you can relax later.

b) Get silence before you start speaking to the class.

c) Know and use the students' names.

d) Prepare lessons thoroughly and structure them firmly.

e) Start the lesson with a "bang" and sustain interest and curiosity.

f) Speak clearly.

g) Make sure your instructions are clear.

h) Have extra material prepared (e.g.: to cope with slower / faster-working students).

i) Look at the class when speaking, and learn how to "scan".

 

-Which of the items under the headings: "Before the problem arises", "When the problem is beginning" and "When the problem has exploded" is the most difficult to tackle in your opinion. Analyse the reasons why it is so.

(Page 264,265,266)

 

     I think the most difficult item to tackle is "Don't take things personally."  I believe this is a difficult instruction to obey because we tend to get upset by remarks that were not intended personally.  In the book says that we should try to relate to the problem and not to the student, as the object to be attacked and dealt with, even if we are quite sure that the criticism was meant personally.

     In my opinion, this is the most difficult item to tackle because it is really hard to take things as if they weren't mean for us when in fact they were for us.  However, as the book says, it is important to prevent discipline problems before they arise because in that way the problems that may arise will be less terrible.

 

Module 19

 

-What kind of motivation has to do with the learner´ s interest to get engaged in the class activities out of the mere desire to take part?

 

     Global intrinsic motivation.  The generalized desire to invest effort in the learning for its own sake.

 

-Why is it important to make students be aware of failure?

 

     Failure, too, is not just a matter of wrong answers; learners should be aware that they are failing if they have done significantly less than they could have, if they are making unsatisfactory progress, or not taking care.  Success loses its sweetness if it is too easily attained and if there is no real possibility or experience of failure.  For another, it is inevitable that there will be occasional failures in any normal learning experience, and they are nothing to be ashamed of; good learners recognize this, take setbacks in their stride and look for ways to exploit them in order to succeed next time.  As with success, it is in principle part of the teacher's job to make learners aware of when they are failing.

 

- What is the effect of constant awareness of shortcomings?

 

     There is certainly a danger that constant awareness of shortcomings may lower learner's motivation and demoralize them, particularly those whose self-image and confidence are shaky to start with.  There may be cases where you may prefer to ignore or play down a failure, and success can be made more likely by judicious selection of tasks, and by setting the standard of success at a clearly achievable level.

 

 

 

2-         Summaries of Ficha de Cátedra 1

prepared by  Romina Arena, Lila Carrizo, Carolina Quintana, Mercedes Madeo, Fiorella Lasca and Luciana Leiva.

 

 

 

"A course in Language Teaching." Penny Urr

 

MODULE 7

 

1)-Why is the presentation of language trough a situation or topic more interesting and advantageous?

 

Lang. has traditionally been segmented into sounds vocabulary and grammatical structures, but it may equally well be taught through larger meaningful segments based on whole Chunks discourse.

Another possibility is to base lang., round situations (these are topics brought alive as it were, and integrated into some kind of communicative event.

In some ways topics and situations are more difficult to teach than isolated items like words or structures, in that they involve whole discourse, with longer and more complicated lang. constructs. On the other hand the learner is immediately engaging with lang. that expresses meaning in context, and these may be seen as more interesting and clearly relevant for communicative purposes.

 

2)-NOTIONS: is a concept, or idea. It may be quite specific in which case it is virtually the same as vocabulary (dig, house, for ex.), or it may be very general- time, size, emotion. -

FUNCTION: is some kind of communicative act, it is the use of language to achieve purpose, usually involving interaction between al least two people. (Suggesting, promising, apologising)

 

3)- I DON'T UNDERSTAND.

 

4)-Example: (the UNDERLINED are the things that you can change)

 

A: WHAT ARE YOU WEARING?

 

B: I'M WEARING A COAT. IT'S RAINNING.

 

A: OH! I SEE. WHAT ARE YOU WEARING?

 

B: I'M WEARING A DRESS. I'M GOING TO A PARTY.

 

B: BYE, BYE.

 

A: BYE!

 

This kind of task based activity aimed at focusing on chunks of language-in- context may be integrated with the presentation or practice of specific items that are relevant to the target theme, and will help learners engage more intensively with the language associated with.

 

5)- One advantage of teaching topics, etc., through tasks and learners initiated language rather than through ready-made texts is another possible strategy. One advantage of doing this way is that the minds of teacher and students are from outset firmly focused on the holistic language topic, whereas the use of a text as starting point can lead to neglect of meaning and purpose in favour of analysis of grammar and vocabulary items.

Other advantage is the authentic flavour of the language learning process.

However, unpredictability, can be a disadvantage. Also a lot of initiative and sheer hard work is demanded of both teacher and students in suggesting and the recalling or noting down the new language.

 

MODULE 12

 

Characteristics of syllabus:

 

consists of a list of:

 

1) content items (words, structures)

2) process items (tasks, methods)

* it is ordered (easier-more difficult)

* explicit objectives (usually at the beginning)

* it is public

* optional features: time schedule; methodology or approach; recommended material.

 

Types of syllabuses:

 

* grammatical: list of grammatical structures graded according to difficulty and/or importance.

* lexical: list of lexical items usually divided into graded sections.

* grammatical-lexical: both grammatical and lexical are specified.

situational: takes the real-life contexts of lg. uses as their basis. EG: In the street.

* topic-based: rather like the situational, except that the heading (notion) are topic-based. EG: Food.

* notional: (Wilkins) Notions are concepts that lg. can express. They can be general or specific.

* functional-notional: (Van Ek) Functions are things you can do with lg. Purely functional syllabuses are rear: functions and notions are combined.

* mixed: combines different aspects. You can find specifications of topics, tasks, functions and notions, as well as grammar and vocabulary.

* procedural: specifies the learning tasks to be done rather than lg. itself. EG: map-reading.

* process: contents are negotiated with learners.

 

"Children learning English." Moon, Jayne

 

Chapter 8: WHY LESSON PLANNING?

 

Reasons:

* practical

* professional development

* public accountability

* confidence

 

Practical.

Teachers found that lesson planning helps them to organize their time and to take account of different learners' needs.

 

Personal development.

Having a plan enables teachers to monitor, assess, and improve their teaching. If  we have a plan, then we have a set of instructions. We can then check to see whether our intended outcomes match the actual outcomes. A mismatch tells us something is wrong and needs investigating.

 

Public accountability.

Teachers can provide a public record or proof of what has been done which demonstrates their ability to do the job.

 

Confidence.

Planning can give teachers more confidence about their teaching and make them feel more secure about what they are doing. This is closely linked to the other reasons.

Decisions involved in planning lessons.

 

In planning one gives careful thought to what has gone before the lesson, meaning the outcome of the previous lesson and also considers what the learners already know about the topic or subject matter, what should be emphasized in the lesson and how the lesson is going to be carried out.

 

The content and organization of a lesson plan.

 

What?

Objectives: what the teacher wants pupils to achieve by the end of the lesson.

Language skills: abilities related to the four main language skills.

Functions: how sentences are used in particular communicative situations (to describe, to apologize, etc.).

Vocabulary: the know and new words pupils will use in the lesson.

Lg. structures (receptive): lg. patterns pupils will read or listen to.

Lg. structure (productive): lg. patterns which pupils will be expected to produce.

 

How? Procedures

Note: The example in the chapter is about a story.

Stories provide meaningful contexts in which to expose children to language input. Through the story, they will encounter new vocabulary and language. They enjoy stories and are keen to find what happens, which gives them a meaningful reason for listening.

 

The main reason for preparing pupils to do an activity is to provide them with support so that they can carry out the activity successfully themselves.

 

Helping children to notice language.

Stories have patterns which reoccurs many times, This makes lg. more predictable and so enables children to be able to join in, It also helps them to be able to guess what will happen in the story. Children might possibly pick up chunks of lg. and also polite requests. Once the children spot the pattern, they can generate other examples themselves.

 

A closer look at some of the steps in planning a lesson.

 

Choosing learning activities.

The choosing of the activity depends on your teaching objectives and the needs of your learners. (Note: In the chapter there are many descriptions of activities related to the story.)

However, it might be helpful to identify:

* what lg. and skills pupils will need in order to do the activity.

* What lg. they have already acquired which they can make use of in doing the activity.

* What attitudes or values you wish to develop through the activities.

 

Writing objective.

Once you know what activities you want to do and are clear what lg. and skills the activity is practising, then it is easier to write your objectives.

Objectives are merely a tool to assist you in achieving your teaching intentions, and not something fixed and right.

 

Feedback on learning.

Here are some ways of collecting on performance which would provide you with feedback about the achievement of objectives for the activity:

* count how many hands go up when you say the wrong word.

* Get pupils to write down words which you changed.

* Check how many words they noticed.

* Check whether pupils carry out the activity correctly when they take over as teachers.

* Identify what words they have problems in recognizing or pronouncing when reading aloud.

* Note how they react to the activity.

 

Feedback for pupils

* At the end of each reading a passage, get pupils to tell you which words you changed. This will help slower pupils to realize what they have to do.

* Repeat the activity several times, changing different words, and ask the slower ones to report back.

* At the end of the activity, go back over the passage, checking on words which pupils had problems with reading aloud.

 

"A course in Language Teaching." Penny Urr

 

MODULE 15 LESSON PLANNING:

 

The lesson is a type of organised social event that occurs in virtually all cultures.  Lesson in different places may vary in topic, time, place, atmosphere, methodology and materials but they all essentially are concerned with learning as their main objective, involve the participation of learners and teachers and are limited and pre scheduled as regards time, place ands membership.

There are additional characteristics or perspectives to a lesson which may be less obvious, but which are also significant. One way to become aware of these is to look at metaphors that highlight one or another of them. PLEASE READ PAGE 223-224 "METAPHORS."

 

Aspects of a lesson

 

1. Transaction: or series of transactions. This is expressed in the metaphors of shopping, a wedding, a meal, emphasising on some kind of purposeful give and take which results in a product: an acquisition or a definable mental or physical change in the participants.

2. Interaction. Most obvious in the metaphor of conversation, but it also expressed in the wedding, the variety show, etc. What is important here is the relationships between learners and teachers, it involves relaxed, warm interaction.

 

3. Goal-oriented effort. Involving hard work: climbing a mountain, a football game. This implies awareness of a clear, worthwhile objective, the necessity of effort to attain it and a resulting sense of satisfaction and triumph if it is achieved.

 

4. A satisfying, enjoyable experience. A variety show, a symphony, a meal. The main point is that participants should enjoy it and therefore be motivated to attend while it is going on.

 

5. A role-based culture, where certain roles (teacher) involve responsibility and activity; and others (learners) responsiveness and receptivity. (Consultation with a doctor, a wedding) All participants advance the demands that will be made on them ad their expected behaviours. This often implies:

6. A conventional construct, with elements of ritual.

 

7. A series of free choices (a menu, a conversation) Participants are free to "do their own thing" within a fairly loose structure and construct the event as it progresses, through their own decision-making. No obvious authority.

 

Varying lesson components:

 

In a lesson which is entirely taken up with one kind of activity interest is likely to flag. A varied lesson, besides being more interesting and pleasant for both teachers and learners, is also likely to cater for a wider range or learning styles and strategies, and may delay onset of fatigue by providing regular refreshing changes in the type of mental or physical activity demanded.

Here are some guidelines for the combination of different components:

1. Tempo

* Activities may be brisk and fast moving or slow and reflective.

2. Organisation

* The learners may work on their own, pairs or groups or as a full class in interaction with the teacher.

3. Mode and skill

* Activities may be based on written or spoken lang., and they may vary as the learners are asked to produce, or receive.

4. Difficulty

* Activities may be seen as easy and non-demanding or as difficult.

5. Topic

* Both the lang. Teaching and the topic may change from one activity to another.

6. Mood

* Activities vary also in mood. Light and fun vs. Serious and profound.

7. Stir-settle

* Some act. Enliven and excite students while others have the effect of claming them down.

8. Active-passive

* Learners may be activated in a way that encourages their own initiative or they may be only required to do as they are told.

 

Guidelines for ordering components of a lesson:

 

* Put the harder tasks earlier, as the students are fresher earlier in the lesson.

* Have quieter activities before lively ones, it can be quite difficult to calm down a class.

* Think about transitions; devote some time thought to the transition stage to introduce the next activity.

* Put all the class together at the beginning and the end. this contributes  to a sense of structure.

* End on a positive note, this doesn't mean ending with a joke or fun act, but an activity that has a positive ending.

 

Evaluating lesson effectiveness

Criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness:

* The learners were active, attentive, enjoying themselves.

* The class seemed to be learning the material well.

* The lesson went according to plan.

* The language was used communicatively. (Even though non communicative act. also have their place).

* The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout (if they are in the appropriate level)

 

"Children learning English." Moon, Jayne

 

CHAPTER 7 and 8

 

Teachers' views on creating their own materials

 

Our textbooks not always fully meet our pupils' needs. This prompts many teacher to adapt and create their own material. However, this may cause some problems. Here we have some solution for them:

 

Lack of time : Involve your pupils. Get them to help you in cutting, sticking, copying. It gives them a real reason for using the language.

 

Cost involved in making/photocopying: One idea is getting together with other language teachers and share the cost. You can also have laminated cards in order to make them last.

 

Lack of experience/skill:  Start by trying out activities from the book and then later adapting them.

 

How to analyse and evaluate activities

 

A language learning  activity

 

* has a clear language teaching goal

* has a clear and meaningful purpose for learners.

* Has a clear outcome for learners.

* Require the use of L2

* facilitates language learning

 

GOAL : what teacher wants to achieve through the activity.

INPUT: the material to work (text, oral instruction).

PROCEDURES: what children do with the input (read , talk)

OUTCOME: result of the activity. We can differentiate between product outcomes (a set of answers, a crossword) or Process outcome (skills, attitude developed)

TEACHER ROLE: it is implied by the activity. In a drill, the teacher control the children whereas in a communicative game the teacher set up the task.

LEARNER ROLE: implied by the activity.

ORGANIZATION: it is the way learner organise (whole class, in pairs).

 

How to select activities

 

A good language learning activity must:

 

* Provide a clear and meaningful purpose for using language.

* Challenge learners

* Provide activities that create a need or pressure for children to use English.

* Provide activities which allow children to be creative with language.

 

 

Note: No activity can fulfil all the criteria simultaneously. You must decide what your priorities are.

 

The benefits of adapting or creating your own activity

 

You can simplified the language to suit the level, You can adapt the activity to your learners and the teaching situation.

 

CHAPTER 7

 

* Reasons for creating: Ensure a better fit between your teaching and the needs of your St.

* How to analyse an activity: consider different components in order to decide usefulness.

* Criteria for selecting: Decide your priorities, your activity depends on your goal.

* Value of creating/adapting.  You see teaching from a different perspective.

 

CHAPTER 9

 

Topic work

 

It is a way of organising learning around topics. Activities linked to the topic allow the children to practise. Topic or theme-based  work integrates  language learning with children 's subject learning across the curriculum. Activities focus on meaning.

Choosing a topic

 

You could choose a topic by:

 

* Asking children's opinion.

* Consulting your syllabuses.

* Asking other teachers

* Consulting books or magazines

 

Factor which may influence your choice:

 

* Pupils' interest

* Pupils' conceptual level

* Time available

* Level of language needed

* Level of cognitive challenge

* Pupils' language needs

* Resources available

* Your syllabus

 

Analysing language/skill/attitudes in learning activities.

 

   Things you can do when selection activities:

 

* Analyse the structure, skill, attitudes, etc  they involved.

* Differentiate new from familiar language

* Check with your syllable to see what structures you need to cover

* Adapt activities to language you need to focus on

 

Guideline for sequencing activities

 

* Moving from receptive to productive (listening to speaking)

* Activity dependency

* Cognitive complexity (simple to more complex)

* Moving from linguistically controlled to more free.

* Going from concrete to abstract.

 

Outcomes of activities:

 

In topic work, pupils learn how to work together, to find out information, to manage with their work and present it. The emphasis is on the process of learning so we could say that one outcome is the developmental process skills. It is also important for pupils that there are some e definite end products or outcomes of the topic work. They will have a record of their work for their own satisfaction. Outcomes also provides you with an indication of pupils' performance.

 

How to organise topic work

 

Careful organization is crucial and this involves decisions about time available, time needed, resources needed, ways of monitoring progress, organising and grouping children (according to friendship, abilities or shared interest).

TRY OUT TOPIC WORK : ACTION PLAN.

 

* Make a list of possible topics

* Think of an starting point

* See how pupil respond and what idea they generate.

* Plan linked activities

* Plan one major outcome

* Evaluate it by asking children's opinion.

 

Note: interesting chart on page 133: problems of using topic work.

 

MODULE 16

 

Patterns of classroom interaction

 

The most common type of classroom interaction is  IRF(INTERACTION- RESPONSE - FEEDBACK): the teacher initiates an exchange , usually in form of a question , one of the students answers, the teacher gives FEEDBACK( assessment, correction, comment) .In few words, IRF is an activation technique which allows the teacher to monitor immediately and also learners may learn from other responses.

However, there are other alternative patterns , such as: the initiation by means of interaction between the students or the students and the material.

 

Forms of interaction

 

* TT: Teacher very active, students only receptive

* T: teacher active, students mainly receptive

* TS: teacher and students fairly equally active

* S : students active, teacher mainly receptive

* SS: students very active, teachers only receptive

 

 

I am going to relate some INTERACTION PATTERNS with the corresponding

FORMS OF INTERACTION:

 

 

INTERACTION PATTERNS

FORMS OF INTERACTION

GROUP WORK: Advantages:  improves oral fluency, responsibility and independence. Disadvantages:  teachers may lose control. Students may use their mother tongue.

Organization:

1. Presentation: Sample activity. Clarify things

2. Process: Monitor students, make contributions (the teacher's roll)

3. Ending. Try to finish the activity while the students are still enjoying the activity

4. Feedback: May take any forms: Giving the right solution, listening and evaluating suggestions, pooling  ideas in the board,.

 

S: students active, teacher mainly receptive

INDIVIDUAL WORK: the teacher gives a task and they work individually. The roll of the teacher is to monitor the activity. The opposite is Lock step learning, where every one in the class is expected to do the same thing in the same way. Does not imply a programme in self instruction. It is simply an attempt to provide for differing learner needs within a class and to put more responsibility on the shoulders of the learners themselves.

Procedures:

* Students choose individual simplified readers

* Response to listening: wrote what you have understood from the tape

* Work cards: different material each student chooses one to work with it

* Textbook exercises for homework : different sets

* Varied tasks: students can change work cards freely

S: students active, teacher mainly receptive

FULL CLASS INTERACTION: Students debate a topic and the teacher stimulates participation

S: students active, teacher mainly receptive

COLLABORATION: The students do the same sort of task  as in individual work, but now they work together , to try to achieve the best results that they can.

Learners contribute to each other ´s writing and are more aware of their own; they can do some monitoring on themselves

S: students active, teacher mainly receptive

CHORAL RESPONSES: the teacher gives a model that is repeated by all the class

T: teacher active , students mainly receptive

CLOSED- ENDING QUESTIONING(IRF)

Only one right response gets approved. This is ("guess what the teacher wants you to say -game")

T: teacher active , students mainly receptive

STUDENT INITIATES -TEACHER ANSWERS

In a guessing game: the students think of questions and the teacher answers

TS: teacher and students fairly equally active

OPEN -ENDED  TEACHER QUESTIONING

There are a number of possible right answers, so that more students answer each clue.

TS: teacher and students fairly equally active

SELF -ACCESS

Students choose their own learning tasks and work automatically

SS: students very active, teachers only receptive

TEACHERS TALK: involves a silent student response, such as writing for a dictation, but there is no initiative as part of the student

TT: Teacher very active, students only receptive

 

Questioning

A question is used as an activation within the IRF(initiation, response feedback)

In the context of teaching, a question may be defined as a teacher utterance which has the objective of motivating the oral performance of the learners.

Classification of questions:

* For  analysis and evaluation

* Genuine or display questions( the teacher really wants to know the answer or she is just checking)

* Close or open ended( have a single right answer or many)

 

Criteria for effective questioning:

 

* Clarify what kind of answer is required

* Learning value: Explain whether the question will contribute to further reading or not.

* Interest: Questions are stimulating, important or not necessary

* Availability: can most of the members of the class answer them or not

* Extension: does the question invites extended answers or not

* Teacher reaction: Are the learners sure that their responses will be related with respect

 

 

MODULE 17:  FUNCTION OF FEEDBACK

 

FEEDBACK DEFINITION: Is the information that is given to the learner about his or her performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving his performance.

 

FEEDBACK COMPONENTS: ASSESMENT AND CORRECTION

 

ASSESMENT: The learner is simply informed how well or badly she has performed . a percentage grade on an exam is an example as well as the response "no" to an attempted answer in the class. Provision of the assessment:

* Audio-lingualism: Positive assessment provides reinforcement of the correct responses, and promotes learning

* Humanistic methodologies: Ass.  Should be positive not judgmental

* Skill theory: the learners need feedback on how well she or he is doing

 Assessment is compared with EVALUATION or FORMATIVE EVALUATION. There are different kinds of assessments:

* Teacher's assessment:  teachers subjective view on children performance

* Continuos ass:  the various assessments that the student have received during the course

* Self-assessment: they evaluate their own performance

* Portfolio: learners gather a collection of things that they did during a period of time

The grades of the assessment can be:

* Letters or word; ABC OR VERY GOOD, BELOW and so forth

* Profiles: containing the good points and the weaknesses in the students processes of learning

 

CORRECTION: Some specific information is provided on aspects of the learner's performance :through explanation , or provision of the better alternatives. This concept can include the information that the learner did right, as well as the wrong answers and WHY(justifications) - but teachers and learners generally misunderstand the term as if it only means THE CORRECTION OF MISTAKES . When in fact, IT IS ALSO A FURTHER EXPLANATION or JUSTIFICATION.

 

Oral correction proved to be not good when you correct immediately after the mistake is made

 

MODULE 18

 

THE CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE

 

Classroom discipline is a state in which both teachers and learners accept and consistently observe a set of rules about behaviour in the classroom whose function is to facilitate smooth and efficient teaching and learning in a lesson.

 

POSSIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DISCIPLINED CLASSROOM

 

It seems fairly clear that in a disciplined classroom it is easier to activate students in the way the teachers want, and that time will be probably spent on-task, rather that wasted on organisational problems or disruptive behaviour. The existence of a disciplined classroom does not, in itself, necessarily imply that learning is taking place. However, little or no learning will take place in a very undisciplined atmosphere.

Disciplined classes may or may not be quiet; undisciplined ones are usually noisy. There is, therefore, arguably some positive correlation between quietness and the level of discipline.

The fact that the teacher is in control of proceedings does not necessarily mean that he or she is standing in front of the class telling everyone what to do. The initiative may have been handed over to the students to do what they decide in a particular activity. However democratic the setup, the underlying responsibility for the control of any disciplined classroom has to be, surely, should be in the hands of the teacher: how authoritarian or liberal, rigid or flexible he or she is in the operation of this control is another question.

Smooth-running process is the main manifestation of discipline in the classroom, as it is in any other organization; and there has to be co-operation of participants in order to produce this.

If the class is motivated to learn, it is more likely to be easy to manage.

A lesson which is according to plan is more likely to be disciplined: the teacher knows where he or she is going, activities are well organised and prepared; and the awareness that the process is clearly planned tends to boost teacher confidence and student trust, which in their turn contribute to discipline. On the other hands, changes and improvisations do not necessarily lead to indiscipline, and may even prevent it.

Students may be quite unaware of the objective of the lesson, and yet be amenable to the control of the teacher, and the class as a whole disciplined. On the other hand, if they actually have and wish to implement objectives of their own the result may well be chaos, unless they are persuaded to forgo their own objectives, and do as they are asked. The latter is what in fact happens in may classrooms, especially with younger or adolescent learners in schools. A shared knowledge of and agreement on lesson objectives is not, therefore, absolutely necessary for a disciplined classroom, but it probably contributes to it, by raising motivation and the likelihood of operation.

There exists such a quality as charismatic "authority": some teachers possess it while others do not; the possessors of this quality find it much easier to control classes. The classes of those who do not possess natural authority can be equally disciplined: it just needs harder work.

 

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE

 

         The choice of  an appropriate methodology is likely to ensure that students feel they are learning in a way that is "right" and useful for them, and they will therefore be more willing to co-operate. The fostering of interpersonal relationships is obviously another important factor. Then there is the question of good planning: a carefully and clearly organised lesson makes for purposeful and orderly process. Finally, students motivation is extremely important, and can be enhanced by teacher action: the more interesting and motivating the learning activity, the more likely it is that students will be co-operative and stay on-task. So, to recap, the factors are:

* Classroom management

* Methodology

* Interpersonal relationships

* Lesson planning

* Student motivation

 

DEALING WITH DISCIPLINE PROBLEMS

 

* BEFORE THE PROBLEM ARISES (Prevention is better than cure!)

The teachers who are most successful in maintaining discipline in class are not those who are good at dealing with problems, but those who know how to prevent their arising in the first place.

 

1. Careful planning: when the lesson is carefully planned, there's not time for the students to get out of control for the focus of attention is on the tasks. Moreover, awareness of the plan helps your being confident and winning the trust of the children.

2. Clear instructions: clear and quick instructions must be given to the children; however, there may be negotiation about what to do.

3. Keep in touch: you need to be constantly aware of what is going on in every part of the classroom.  This allows students to feel you're aware of them all the time and to let you know whenever a problem is about to arise.

* WHEN THE PROBLEM IS BEGINNING (Do something!)

It is advisable to respond immediately and actively to any incipient problem you detect.

1. Deal with it quietly.

2. Don't take things personally: relate to the problem, not to the student.

3. Don't use threats

* WHEN THE PROBLEM HAS EXPLODED (Act quickly - don't argue!)

The priority here is to act quickly in order to get the class revert to smooth routine as fast as possible. Often it is preferable to take a decision, even if not a very good one, fast, than to hesitate and do nothing.

1. Explode yourself: sometimes a display of anger is good, but without losing your temper or becoming personally aggressive.

2. Give in: sometimes it is also advisable to give in because it puts you in a place where you can demand sth from the children later.

3. Make them an offer they can't refuse: always look for a way of diverting the crises if children are pushing you into a confrontation.

 

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN PAIRS OF CONCEPTS

 

         "Control" is imposed from above by an authority who is invested with superior influence; "discipline" is accepted by participants in the activity of studying as an essential or integral part of that study.

         "Authoritarian" describes a teacher whose authority derives from some exterior empowering agent, or who is bossy; "authoritative" describes one who is obeyed because he or she is trusted to know best about the subject of study and how to learn it.

         "Power" is the ability to impose one's will on others, through physical coercion, or other forms of pressure; whereas "authority" is the demand for co-operation and obedience that is accepted because it is rooted in law, social order or accepted value system.

 

MODULE 19: LEARNER MOTIVATION AND INTEREST

 

Learner motivation makes teaching and learning immeasurably easier and more pleasant, as well as more productive: hence the importance of the topic for teachers.

The importance o motivation

It is very strongly related to achievement in language learning.

The teacher's job is to do all they can do to encourage the development of ability and enhance motivation, on the understanding that each will contribute to the other.

Characteristics of motivated learners

The most successful learners are not necessarily those to whom a language comes very easily; they are those who display typical characteristics, most of them clearly associated with motivation:

1. Positive task orientation: the learner has confidence in his or her success.

2. Ego involvement: the learner finds it important to succeed in learning.

3. Need for achievement: to overcome difficulties and succeed in what he or she sets out to do.

4. High aspirations: the learner goes for demanding challenges and high proficiency.

5. Goal orientation: the learner is very aware of the goals of learning.

6. Perseverance: the learner is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress.

7. Tolerance of ambiguity: the leaner is not frustrated by a temporary lack of understanding, he or she thinks it will come later.

Different kinds of motivation

"Integrative": the desire to identify with and integrate into the target-language culture.

"Instrumental": the wish to learn the language for purposes of study or career promotion.

"Intrinsic": the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake. It has been termed "cognitive drive", very typical of young children and tends to deteriorate with age.

"Extrinsic": motivation that is derived form external incentives.

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have an important part to play in classroom motivation; and they are partially accessible to teacher influence.

"Global": the overall orientation of the learner towards the learning of the foreign language.

"Situational": it has to do with the context of learning (classroom, total environment).

"Task": the way the learner approaches the specific task in hand.

 

The teacher's responsibility

Most teachers accept that it is their responsibility to motivate learners.

 

Extrinsic motivation

The desire of students to please some other authority figure such as parents their wish to succeed in an external exam, or peer-group influences.

Success and its rewards

Learners who have succeeded in past task will be more willing to engage with the next one, more confident and more likely to persevere in their efforts.

The teacher's most important function is to make sure that learners are aware of their own success.

Failure an its penalties

It is inevitable that there will be occasional failures in any normal learning experience, and learners should be aware that they are failing. They should look for ways to exploit mistakes in order to succeed next time.

Authoritative demands

Learners are often motivated by teacher pressure: they may be willing to invest effort in tasks simply because you have told them to, recognising your authority and right make this demand, and trusting your judgement.

Teachers have, surely, a duty to use their authority to "push" their students beyond what they might be willing to do on their own, towards what Vygotsky called their "zone of proximal development" -the next stage achievement- which can be only attained by a learner with the support and help of the teacher.

 

Tests

Learners who know they are going to be tested on specific material next week will normally be more motivated to study it carefully than if they had simply been told to learn it. This is a useful incentive.

Competition

Learners will often be motivated to beat their opponents in a competition. If the competition is taken not too seriously, and if scores are at least partly a result of chance, so that anyone might win, positive motivational aspects are enhanced and stress lowered.

 

Intrinsic motivation and interest

Ways of arousing interest in tasks

1. Clear goal: the learner should be aware of the objectives of the task- both language learning and content.

2. Varied topic and tasks: topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as interesting as possible.

3. Visuals: it is important for learner to have sth to look at that is eye catching and relevant to the task in hand.

4. Tension and challenge-games: game-like activities provide pleasurable tension ad challenge.

5. Entertainment: it produces enjoyment, which in its turn adds motivation.

6. Play-acting: role-play and simulations that use the imagination and task learner out of themselves.

7. Information gap: the need to understand or transmit information.

8. Personalization: learners are more likely to be interested in tasks that have to do with their opinions, tastes, and experiences.

9. Open-ended cues: cues which invites a number of possible responses, which are likely to be interesting, original and humorous.

 

Fluctuations in learner interest

Some temporary lowering in learner interest can be caused by factors beyond your control -the need of the learner to take a short break or external distractions- but there are also certain teacher behaviours which can quickly catch or lose learner interest.

 

TEACHERS WHO ARE EXCITED ABOUT THEIR SUBJECT OR WHO SIMPLY LOVE TEACHING SEEM TO COMMUNICATE THEIR OWN MOTIVATION TO THEIR STUDENTS.